Next I will discuss the ten dharmas of the realms of the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas from the perspective of true non-defilement [anāsrava]. Their “appearance” is that of nirvāṇa. Their “nature” is neither good nor evil. Their “essence” is the fivefold Dharma Body.¹⁸¹ Their “power” is the ability to appear and move about [in this triple world of suffering]; they have the potential capability of attaining the Path. Their “activity” is to strive diligently. Their “causes” are undefiled, correct wisdom. Their “conditions” are basic practice¹⁸² which is conducive to [advancing on] the Path. Their “results” are fourfold.¹⁸³

[According to Hinayāna teachings, there is no retribution for śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas, for three reasons.] First, since śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas are without further birth, they have no retribution. The reason is that when the [understanding of the] real is aroused, this is the [ultimate] result and there is no need to discuss any further retributions. Second, if undefiled dharmas arise as the retribution for repetitive causes, then repetitive results will be attained. Since the lack of further birth from having no defilements [a characteristic of arhats] is not a condition wherein one is shackled by further birth, there is no later retribution. Third, the first three [i.e., stream-winners, once-returners, and those who will return no more] have retribution because they have remaining [mistaken] conceptions which have not been severed. Therefore the stream-winners¹⁸⁴, once-returners, or those reborn in the realm of form, do not share in the [lack of] retribution [gained from total] non-defilement. Therefore [according to Hinayāna teachings] these beings have nine and not ten [suchlike characteristics].

According to Mahāyāna doctrine, even this [so-called] non-defilement [of the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas] contains some defilement. The Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra says, “The adornment of virtue” means being conditioned and defiled.¹⁸⁵ This refers to the śrāvakas. They are not completely undefiled. They have not gotten rid of all delusions and they still experience rebirth in the world of transmigrations. If complete non-defilement is the cause and ignorance the condition, then one is reborn in the realm of transformations. ¹⁸⁶ Therefore they have retributions.¹⁸⁷

180

“White” (Sukla-dharma). return

181

The five virtues attained by one who is at the stage where he has nothing more to learn (aśaikṣa) the keeping of the precepts, concentration (samādhi), wisdom, liberation, and the knowledge and insight of liberation. In T’ien-t’ai doctrine this is recognized as the highest level of attainment by those of the Hinayāna. return

182

The “practice of practice.” This compound is used in contrast to the “practice of wisdom.” In the Tz’u ti ch’an min, an earlier work of Chih-i, he defines these terms as follows: “There are two types of practice. The first is the practice of wisdom, and the second is the practice of practice. . . . The practice of practice is so called because through this practice one conquers and destroys all passions. The second practice of wisdom consists of severing illusions concerning reality through correct contemplation of the four noble truths, twelvefold conditioned co-arising, and true emptiness…” return

183

The four results of stream-winner, once-returner, one who will return to this saṃsāric existence no more, and the arhat. return

184

One with seven more rebirths. return

185

This refers to the passage in the chapter on the Bodhisattva Lion’s Roar where the Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra distinguishes between two kinds of adornment, that of wisdom and virtues. The passage reads: “There are two kinds of adornments. First, that of wisdom, and second, that of virtue. If there is a bodhisattva who is endowed with these two adornments, he will know the Buddha-nature. … The adornment of wisdom refers to (the content of a bodhisattva’s attainment from) the first to the tenth bodhisattva stage (bhūmi). The adornment of virtue refers to the pāramitā from that of charity to prajña-wisdom, but does not include Prajn͂āpāramitā. The adornment of wisdom is that of all Buddhas and bodhisattvas. The adornment of virtues is that of śrāvakas, pratyekabuddhas, and the bodhisattvas of (the stage of) the ninth Abode. . . . The adornment of virtue is conditioned, defiled, has existence, has resultant retribution, has obstructions, and is not eternal. It is a dharma of ordinary men. The adornment of wisdom is unconditioned, undefiled (anāsrava), does not exist, has no resultant retribution, is unobstructed, and is eternal.” return

186

This position and terminology is reminiscent of, and probably based on, the Śrimālādevi Sūtra which, in the chapter on ekayāna, points out that arhats and pratyekabuddhas have not put an end to their rebirths, not completely cultivated all virtues, have not accomplished what should be accomplished, and have not completely exhausted the delusions which need to be exhausted. It then posits two kinds of death and rebirth: first, the ordinary death (and rebirth) of people in saṃsāra, and second the death (and rebirth) which is a transformation beyond conceptual thought , the undefiled rebirth of bodhisattvas in this world in order to save sentient. The Śrimālādevi Sūtra continues by making a distinction between latent and active passions. The śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas sever the active passions, but they still have not severed the latent defilements of fundamental ignorance. return

187

See Hurvitz, Chih-i, 297-299, for a different interpretation and lengthy discussion of this section. return

Next I will discuss the ten dharmas of the realms of men and gods. These are different from the four evil destinies only in that one can recognize goodness and pleasure. Their “appearance” is pure and superior. Their “nature” is good. Their “essence” is a peaceful body and mind. Their “power” is the potential capability to do good. Their “activity” is to perform good deeds and abstain from evil deeds. Their “causes” are good deeds. Their “conditions” are good [but they still have mistaken views concerning] self and possessions. Their “results” are the spontaneous arising of the results of a good mind. Their “retribution” is the experience of pleasures which are natural [to men and gods]. “Sameness” is as explained above.

[B]y arranging together those [dharma realms] of like characteristics, we have four categories. The four [evil] destinies [of hell, preta, beasts, and asura]; men and gods; śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas; and bodhisattvas and Buddhas.

First I will clarify the ten suchlike characteristics of the four evil destinies.

1. “Suchlike appearance” refers to their evil appearances which are made manifest by their falling into a state which is not desirable [such as falling into a hellish state]. It is analogous to a man who has not yet met disaster but he already shows maladious signs. A soothsayer, upon examination, can predict his ill fortune. If these evil appearances arise, it is clear that he will fall into hell in the future. Common men cannot recognize [these signs], but those of the two vehicles can recognize them slightly, bodhisattvas recognize them but not profoundly, and Buddhas recognize them exhaustively. It is like a skillful fortuneteller who has penetrating insight into the beginning and end [of all things]. Therefore it is called “such-like appearances.”
2. “Suchlike nature“: [these beings in the four evil destinies] have an intrinsic nature which is “black.” They are so accustomed to “black evil” [deeds] that it is difficult for them to change. It is like wood: when it comes into contact with fire, in the right conditions it will burn [and turn black]. The Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra says, “Since the dharmas of passions have the nature of arising, therefore it is possible for them to arise.”¹⁷¹ These evil beings have the propensity [“nature”] to be born in these four destinies. Therefore if the conditions are such, they are born [in these four evil destinies]. Even if a clay or wooden image has the outer appearance [of something], it lacks the inner nature [of that which it represents] so it is not able to arouse birth. The nature of evil beings is not like this.¹⁷² Therefore it is called “suchlike nature.”
3. “Suchlike essence“: [these beings in the four evil destinies] are attached to evil forms and mentalities¹⁷³ which have been pounded and hacked to dust. This is their essential quality. Also, first in this life they abuse their minds, and in the next life their material body is abused. Also, the results and retributions from this world in which the mind and body is abused is such that in the next world the results and retributions will consist of the abuse of mind and body. Therefore the abuse of body and mind is the essence [of those in the four evil destinies].
4. “Suchlike power” refers to evil potentialities. It is like a broken object which, though it is not useful [for what it what meant to do], first becomes useful when it fulfills another purpose.¹⁷⁴ The Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra says, “In building a house one utilizes wood, not silk threads. In making cloth one utilizes silk threads, not clay and wood.”¹⁷⁵ Hellish beings have the potential to tread the edge of a blade,¹⁷⁶ preta have the potential to swallow copper and to chew steel [in their attempt to satisfy their unlimited hunger], beasts [have the potential of] the strong overcoming the weak – fish eat other fish, and [other animals] pull carts or other heavy objects. These are all evil [or unpleasant] powers and potentialities.
5. “Suchlike activity“: to make conceptual constructions, perform daily routines, and in general perform verbal, physical, and mental actions is to establish all sorts of evil [deeds, causes, and results]. This is called “activity.” The eighth section of the Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra says, “It is like one who indulges in evil deeds in the world is called only half a person.”¹⁷⁷ Thus to indulge in evil deeds is called the activity of hellish beings.
6. “Suchlike causes“: these are the repetitive causes of evil. These give rise to [evil results] of an identical type [as the cause], which habitually continue and are not severed. Since they arise habitually it is easy to [continue to] do evil. Therefore these are called “suchlike causes.”
7. “Suchlike conditions” are auxiliary causes, such as [the erroneous belief in] the self and possessions, which contributes to the maturation of repetitive karma. It is like water which can moisten the seed [and cause a plant to grow]. Therefore that which functions as the cause of a retribution is called “conditions.”
8. “Suchlike results” refer to repetitive results. It is like a man who is full of desires and experiences a hellish body. He sees instruments of suffering but [mis]takes them to be desirable objects, and thus passionate attachments are increased further. This is called “repetitive results.”
9. “Suchlike retributions” are the retributive results. It is like a man who is full of desire is in a hellish state, and when he approaches the objects of his desires he experiences the sufferings of the copper pillars and steel beds. Therefore this is called “suchlike retributions.”
10. “The beginning and end both the same” has three meanings.¹⁷⁸ First, since both the beginning and end are empty [of substantial Being], they are called “the same.” Second, the evil results and retributions already exist within the initial appearances and nature [and so forth of sentient beings]. Therefore the beginning [appearances and natures] and end [results and retributions] are “the same.” If the later states are not [contained in] the initial [appearances and causes], then the soothsayer would not be able to predict [the future]. If the later [results and activities occur] apart from the initial state, the soothsayer would not be able to continue his predictions. One should know that the beginning and end exist as mutually interdependent, and that these conventional states are thus called “the same.” Third, the mind [which understands] the true aspects of reality¹⁷⁹ is not different from Buddhahood; there is not one visible form nor one scent which is not a part of the middle way. From this point of view of the principle of reality, [beginning and end] are called “the same.” Due to these [three] meanings it is said that “the beginning and the end are the same.” These three meanings are also contained in each other. Therefore they are “the same.”

171

See Yamamoto II, 514. This passage follows a long section which discusses the meaning of arising and non-arising which Chih-i examines in more detail in his section of the Four Noble Truths. The immediate context reads: “O good man! The dharmas of outflow (of passions, sāsrava-dharma), at the time when they have not yet arisen, already have the nature of arising. Therefore they are able to arise. The dharmas of no outflow (of passions, anāsrava-dharma) fundamentally have no nature of arising. Therefore they are not able to arise.” In other words, it is in the inherent nature of passions to arise and perish, but the lack of any passions has no “existence” and thus it makes no sense to talk of it as “arising” or “perishing.” return

172

That is, unlike a clay or wooden image, they do have the nature which leads to birth in an evil destiny. return

173

Body and mind, rūpa-citta. return

174

This phrase is very vague in the original. It refers to the various unpleasant and undesirable “abilities” of those in the four destinies, which are a deviant and abusive utilization of abilities which should be used to help others and gain enlightenment. return

175

This is a paraphrase of the original which reads: “It is like when Devadatta wishes to make a wall he takes up mud and not colors; when he wishes to make a painting he gathers colors and does not take up grass and wood; in making a robe he takes up threads and does not take up mud and wood; in making a house he takes up mud and not threads. One can know the result of what one is able to make from what one takes up.” return

176

This refers to the pursuit of satisfying one’s desires whatever the cost. For example, people abuse their bodies and minds in a futile attempt to satisfy their appetites. return

177

Yamamoto I, 206-207. This passage is in the chapter “On Letters” in which each of the Sanskrit letters is given a doctrinal interpretation. At the beginning of the chapter it is explained that the letters of the alphabet themselves are “half-words” and though these form the basic foundation for all verbal communication, it is only when they are put together to form words, called “complete words,” that meaning and communication is possible. The passage in the Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra says, “The meaning of ‘halfwords’ is the foundation for verbalizing all good dharmas. Therefore they are called ‘half-words.’ ‘Complete words’ refers to the foundation of verbalizing all good dharmas. It is like one who does evil deeds in the world is called half a person, and one who cultivated good practice is called a complete person.” In T’ien-t’ai doctrine, the Hinayāna teachings are called “the teachings of half-words.” return

178

Corresponding to the threefold truth. return

179

Lit., “middle-real-principle of reality-mind.” This refers either to reality itself or to the mind which understands the true aspects of reality as the middle, i.e., simultaneously empty of substantial Being yet conventionally existent. return