Now, to consider that which is “subtle” in relation to that which is “crude” is to interpret “crude” as a relative term denoting incompleteness and to clarify “subtle” as a term denoting completeness.²⁶⁶ This means one contrasts “crude” and “subtle” as relative terms [in the same way as one contrasts the terms] eternity and transiency, or great and small [or Mahāyāna and Hinayāna].

The Vimalakīrtinirdeśa Sūtra says, “I explain that dharmas neither exist nor inexist; all dharmas arise due to causes and conditions.”²⁶⁷ This clarifies completeness [i.e., the meaning of “subtle”]. “First he [the Buddha] sat under the Bodhi-tree and with his power conquered passions [Māra] and attained the ambrosia-like extinction and perfected the path of awakening.”²⁶⁸ This refers to the incomplete [attainments of the] past and compares it with completeness [the attainment of Buddhahood].

The Pañcaviṃśati-sāhasrikā-prajn͂āpāramitā Sūtra [Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-five Thousand Lines] says, “In Jambudvīpa the second turning of the wheel of the law was seen.”²⁶⁹ This [second turning] is in contrast to the first [turning of the wheel of the law] at the Deer Park. The Prajn͂āpāramitā [Sūtras] are the second [turning of the wheel of the law].

The Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra says, “In the past there was the first turning of the wheel of the law at Vārāṇasī; now there is another turning of the wheel of the law at Kuśinagara.”²⁷⁰ All Sūtras [which contain the sermons preached] at the Deer Park are incomplete, small, and crude. [The teachings of the Mahayana are] complete, great, and subtle in relative contrast to these [Hinayāna teachings]. [This is the meaning of “relative subtlety.”]

This Lotus Sūtra clarifies that “In the past in Vārāṇasi you turned the Dharma-wheel concerning the four truths, preaching the Dharma with discrimination concerning the arising and perishing of the five aggregates. Now again you are turning the wheel of the Dharma which is most subtle and supreme.”²⁷¹ This also shows the subtlety of the Lotus teachings in relative contrast to the crudity of [the teachings of] Deer Park. The meaning of subtle here is the same [as in the other Mahāyāna texts mentioned above]; it is in relative contrast to the crude. This is the meaning of this text.

266

On the terms “incomplete word” and “complete word” see note 177 on the Mahāprajāpatī Sūtra chapter “On Letters.”

267

From the introductory section of the Vimalakīrtinirdeśa Sūtra. Boin, 9, translates this as “Neither being (sat) nor not-being (asat), all dharmas are born dependent on causes.” return

268

This phrase follows soon after the above phrase in the introduction of the Vimalakīrtinirdeśa Sūtra. Boin, 10, has “Great Ascetic (munindra), you have overcome Māra and his hordes; you have conquered supreme enlightenment (pravarabodhi).” return

269

This quote follows the version as found in the Ta Chih tu lun [The Treatise on the Great Prajñāpāramitā]: The Kumārajīva translation of the Pañcaviṃśati-sāhasrikā-prajn͂āpāramitā Sūtra, T. 8, 553a16, is slightly different, but different enough to be significant. It has “I, at Jambudvipa, again saw the turning of the wheel of the law.” In this version there is no indication that it is a second, and different, turning of the wheel of the dharma. Nevertheless Chih-i interprets this phrase as supporting his idea that the Prajn͂āpāramitā Sūtras were a second and distinct step in the evolution of the Buddha’s preaching ministry. return

270

The Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra, if this is indeed the passage to which Chih-i is referring, merely lists the events in the life of Śākyamuni and says, “. . . at Vārāṇasi he first turned the wheel of the law for the five monks, and so forth until he entered Parinirvāṇa at Kuśinagara.” This interpretation of the life of Śākyamuni, however, is dismissed by the Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra as an inferior Hinayāna interpretation. return

271

This is from the chapter “On Parables” in the Lotus Sūtra. Hurvitz, Lotus Sūtra, 56-57, translates it as follows: “Formerly, in Vārāṇasi/ you turned the Dharma-wheel of the four truths/ with discrimination preaching the dharmas/ the origination and extinction of their five collections (skandhānām udayaṃ vyayam)./ Now again you are turning the most subtle/ Unexcelled great Dharma-wheel.” return

Also, “like space” means that if the contemplation of the mind arose spontaneously from the mind itself, then causes and conditions are not necessary. The mind exists [due to] causes and conditions. The mind has no power to arise [spontaneously on its own]. The mind has no power to arise [spontaneously], but neither do conditions arise [spontaneously].²⁶¹ If the mind and conditions each lack substantial Being, how can they have Being when they are joined together? It is difficult [to speak of substantial Being, or of them arising] when they are joined together; when they are separate they do not arise at all.

Now, if just one arising is lacking in substantial Being, how can one speak of the hundred realms and the thousand suchlike characteristics as having substantial Being? Since the mind is empty [of substantial Being], therefore all things which arise dependent on the mind are empty.

This emptiness is also empty. If emptiness is not empty, then one can posit conventional existence as the opposite of emptiness. But conventional existence is not conventional Being.”²⁶² The substantial Being of] neither conventional existence nor emptiness” is ultimate purity [the middle].

Also, “the objective realm of the Buddha” refers to the sameness of the dharma of the Buddhas at the top and the dharma of sentient beings at the bottom.²⁶³

Also, “the dharma of mind” refers to the non-differentiation of the three [dharmas of] mind, Buddha, and sentient beings. This is called “the dharma of mind.”

261

In others words, all things are interdependent and nothing arises in and of itself. return

262

Properly understood, conventional existence and emptiness are not opposite but synonymous. return

263

In other words, the “sameness” or integrated nature of all reality. return

How can the dharmas [of sentient beings and the Buddha] … differ from that of mind? [It cannot and does not.] The only [tentative] difference is that the dharmas of sentient beings are very vast [since they include the nine realms] and the dharma of the Buddha is very superior and thus they are difficult for beginners to comprehend. However, [as the Avataṃsaka Sūtra says,] these three [dharmas of] mind, the Buddha, and sentient beings are not distinct.”²⁵⁶ It is simple to merely contemplate one’s own thoughts.

The Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra says, “All sentient beings are endowed with the three concentrations [samadhi]. . . . The superior concentration refers to the Buddha-nature.”²⁵⁷ This superior concentration is so-called because it is a contemplation of the nature of one’s mind. The superior includes the inferior. Therefore this includes the dharma of sentient beings.

The Avataṃsaka Sūtra says, “If one disports one’s mind in the dharma-realm [dharmadhātu] as if in space, then one will know the objective realm of all Buddhas.”²⁵⁸ The dharmadhātu is the middle. Space is emptiness. The mind and Buddhas are conventional existence. The three together are the objective realm of all Buddhas. This means that if one contemplates [the thoughts of] one’s mind, one can become endowed with all Buddha-dharmas.

This magician-like mind,²⁵⁹ in a single day and night, is constantly creating various sentient beings, aggregates, and various “lands,” such as tentative and real “lands” from hell to that of the Buddha. The practitioner must himself decide and choose which path he should follow.²⁶⁰

256

This refers to the famous verse from the Avataṃsaka Sūtra which emphasizes the importance of the mind in our perception of the objective world. See note 106. This verse can be interpreted in many ways, some more “idealistic” than others. The first part of the verse is often quoted as providing the basis for a mind-only philosophy. The last part of the verse, however, which equates the Buddha, sentient beings, and the mind, weakens this interpretation. In other words, one could use this verse with equal justification to argue that Buddhism is a “Buddha-only” or a “sentient-beings-only” philosophy. All these positions are an extreme interpretation. This verse needs to be re-examined in light of the entire context of the Avataṃsaka Sūtra. For a discussion of Chih-i’s frequent use of this quote, see Andō Toshio 1978, 152ff. return

257

This quote is from a section of the Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra, which discusses the Buddha-nature. See Yamamoto, 659. The context reads: “O good man! All sentient beings are endowed with the three concentrations, i.e., superior, middling, and inferior. The superior (concentration) refers to the Buddha-nature. Therefore we say that all sentient beings have the Buddha-nature. The middling (concentration) refers to all sentient beings being endowed with the first dhyāna (transic state). When conditions are right, they are able to practice it. If conditions are not right, they are not able to practice it. return

258

Once again this is not an exact quote but the meaning is the same. See the Avatawsaka Sütra, T. 9, 409c1. return

259

The mind is like a “magician” because it creates illusions, and the impressions produced in the mind are not the same as the reality which is the true “thusness” of what we see as the objective world. return

260

But it is implied that the path of contemplating the mind is the most accessible. return

[V]erses in the Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra say, “All things are transient; this is the dharma of arising and perishing . . .” and “When arising and perishing is extinguished, this quiescence is the appearance, nature [and so forth] of those of the six destinies [from hell to heaven] are the referent of “all things.” The appearance, nature [and so forth] of those of the two vehicles and [the bodhisattva of] the Shared Teaching are the referent of “transient.”²³⁸ The appearances, nature [and so forth] of the bodhisattvas of the Distinct Teaching are the referent of “when arising and perishing is extinguished.”²³⁹ The appearances, nature [and so forth] of the Buddha realm are the referent for “this quiescence is bliss.”²⁴⁰ Also, “when arising and perishing is extinguished, this quiescence is bliss” refers to the appearances, nature [and so forth] of the Distinct Teaching, i.e., arising and perishing is identical with the quiescence of extinction. When extinction has not yet been accomplished, it is already called “bliss.”²⁴¹ This is the appearances, nature [and so forth] of the Buddha realm as taught in the Perfect Teaching.

236

This is the verse from a famous story concerning one of Śākyamuni’s previous lives in which he is practicing in the Himalayan mountains. A Buddha who appears as a rākṣasa speaks the first part of the verse to the future Śākyamuni, who then offers his body to be eaten by the rākṣasa in order to hear the last half of the verse. return

237

This corresponds to the position of pratītyasamutpāda, conditioned co-arising. return

238

This corresponds to the position of Śūnyatā, emptiness. return

239

This should correspond to the position of prajn͂aptirupādādya, conventional existence. return

240

This should correspond to the position of madhyamā, the middle. return

241

In other words, true nirvāṇa is not complete extinction; rather, reality is inherently and originally quiescent. Chih-i could have quoted, for example, the Lotus Sūtra, which Hurvitz, Lotus Sūtra, 37, translates: “The dharmas from their very origin are themselves eternally characterized by the marks of quiet extinction.” return

The characteristics of the Buddha include the manifestation of correct universal knowledge. The Buddha’s wisdom is universal and he knows all appearances.²²⁸ This is taught in all of the Sūtras. If one utilizes this teaching to interpret the simile of the teachings of the Five Flavors [the results are as follows]:

First, the “milk” teaching expounds the nature and characteristics²²⁹ of both the bodhisattva and Buddha realms, at times expounding the “sameness” [of reality in terms] of the integration of conventional existence, at times expounding the “sameness” [of reality in terms] of the integration of the middle . Although the teaching of the middle is supreme, this [”milk”] teaching [of the Avataṃsaka Sūtra] still partially contains expedient means and thus is not completely supreme.

Second, the “cream” teaching clarifies only the characteristics and natures of those of the two vehicles, and though it attains [the doctrine of] “sameness” as emptiness through analysis [of dharmas],²³⁰ it does not clarify the “sameness” [of reality in terms] of the integration of emptiness, let alone the others [of conventional existence and the middle]. Therefore it is not supreme.

Third, the “curds” teaching clarifies characteristics and nature in four ways, at times expounding the “sameness” [of reality in terms of] emptiness [gained through] analysis, at times expounding the “sameness” [of reality in terms] of the integration of emptiness, at times expounding the “sameness” [of reality in terms] of the integration of conventional existence, and at times expounding the “sameness” [of reality in terms] of the integration of the middle. Only the Buddha with his characteristics and nature fully attains [perfect insight into] the integration of reality as simultaneously empty [of substantial Being] and yet conventionally existent. However, this [”curds” teaching] contains three types of expedient means [i.e., the first three types]. Therefore it is not supreme.

Fourth, the “butter” teaching clarifies three types of characteristics and nature, i.e. at times expounding the integration of emptiness, at times expounding the integration of conventional existence, and at times expounding the integration of the middle. Only the Buddha with his characteristics and nature fully attains [perfect insight into] the integration of reality as simultaneously empty [of substantial Being] and yet conventionally existent. However, this [”butter” teaching] still contains two types of expedient means. Therefore it is not supreme.

Fifth, this Lotus Sūtra [the “ghee” teaching] clarifies that the nine [suchlike characteristics of] appearance, nature, and so forth are all [characterized as] an integrated reality simultaneously empty of substantial Being yet conventionally existent. [As the Lotus Sūtra says,] “You are my true son. I am your true father.”²³¹ Each visible form and each taste in itself is the dharma of the Buddha, and there are no other dharmas.” Therefore it should be known that the Buddha realm is supreme.

228

Or “all characteristics of reality.” return

229

In this section I have translated the character as “characteristics” rather than “appearances” as in the first of the ten suchlikes. In this section the compound [Chinese characters] refers to the ten suchlike characteristics in general and thus “characteristics and nature” makes for a more readable, though admittedly inconsistent, English translation. return

230

Chih-i criticizes the Abhidharmic understanding of emptiness as an emptiness which is achieved by analyzing or “breaking down” dharmas to show that they have no substantial Being. To Chih-i this is an inferior understanding of emptiness, and all things should be understood as empty just as they are. return

231

This statement is by the father of the poor son in the chapter on “Faith and Understanding,” where he finally reveals to everyone the true relationship of he and his son. It illustrates the integrated relationship between the Buddha and sentient beings, and the integrated nature of all of reality. Hurvitz, Lotus Sūtra, 88, translates the context as follows: “When facing his end, the old man commanded his son to gather his kinsmen, as well as kings, great ministers, kṣatriyas, and householders, who were all to gather together. Then he himself proclaimed to them: ‘Sirs! Know that this is my son, by me. Having forsaken me in such-and-such a city and run off, he suffered loneliness and hardship for more than fifty years. His original name was so-and-so. My own name is thus-and-so. Formerly, in my native city, affected by grief, I sought him. Some time ago, I suddenly encountered him by accident and got him back. He is really my son. I am really his father. Now all the treasure I have belongs to my son. What was formerly paid out and taken in, my son knows it all.’ ” return

Determining the order of “subtle Dharma” [miao-fa] means that if we follow convenience [in understanding the] meaning, we should first clarify [the meaning of] Dharma and then discuss its subtlety. As it is written [in the Lotus Sūtra], “My dharma is subtle and difficult to conceptualize.”³¹ If we follow grammatical proportion, [the adjective] “subtle” should come first and later [the noun] “Dharma.”

If one wishes to praise someone, one calls him a likable fellow. If there is no praiseworthy person, then what would one call a “likable fellow”? Therefore first there must be a [worthy] person, and later [the appellation] “likable.” This title [of the Lotus Sūtra] follows grammatical proportion, therefore [the word ] “subtle” comes first and [the word] “Dharma” later. In interpreting the meaning it is convenient to first [discuss] Dharma and then its subtlety. Although we speak of an order, first and last, they are not mutually contradictory.

31

Hurvitz, Lotus Sūtra, 28, translates the context as follows: “Cease, Cease! No need to speak. My dharma is subtle and hard to imagine. Those of overweening pride, if they hear it, shall surely neither revere it nor believe in it.” return

Each one of these ten dharma realms contains the ten suchlike [characteristics]. The ten dharma realms [therefore] contain one hundred suchlike [characteristics]. Also, one dharma realm contains the [other] nine dharma realms, therefore there are one hundred dharma realms and one thousand suchlike [characteristics]. All together there are five categories [of dharma realms]: evil, good, the two vehicles [of śrāvaka and pratyekabuddha], bodhisattvas, Buddhas. These are classified into two categories: the first four are tentative dharmas, and the last one is the real dharma.

A detailed discussion [would reveal that] each [dharma realm] contains both the tentative and the real, but these are dichotomized only as a practical expedient. However, [the reality which is conventionally dichotomized into] the tentative and the real is beyond conceptual understanding and is the object [which can be understood only by] the double [tentative and real] wisdom of the Buddhas of past, present, and future.

If one takes this [inconceivable reality] as an object, what dharma is not included in it? If this objective realm arouses wisdom, what wisdom is there which is not aroused?¹⁴⁹

Therefore it is written, “All dharmas” [sarvadharma].¹⁵⁰ “All dharmas” means that the objective realm which is to be understood is vast. “Only Buddhas can completely exhaust…”¹⁵¹ shows that the wisdom which understands [this objective realm] is deep, reaching the limits and exhausting the depths. [The phrase from the Lotus Sūtra,] “The gateways of their wisdom are difficult to understand and difficult to enter”¹⁵² praises the objective realm as “subtle.” [The phrase from the Lotus Sūtra,] “The wisdom which I have attained is very subtle and most supreme”¹⁵³ praises both [the Buddha’s] wisdom and [the one reality of] the objective realm as mutually interdependent. The prose section [at the beginning] of the chapter on “Expedient Means” [in the Lotus Sūtra] briefly explains this doctrine,¹⁵⁴ and later the section on “exposing, signifying, awakening, and entering”¹⁵⁵ explains this doctrine in detail. The burning house is an analogy for this doctrine; ¹⁵⁶ the chapter on “Faith and Understanding” explains this doctrine; ¹⁵⁷ the father [of the lost son] presents this doctrine to his son;¹⁵⁸ the [parable of the] medicinal herbs tells of this doctrine;159 [the parable of] the magical castle leads one to enter this doctrine.¹⁶⁰

In this way there are many and various examples, but they are all names for [the one reality of] the ten suchnesses and the conventional and real dharma. The Tathāgata penetrates deeply to reach the ends of the ten dharmas and exhausts the limits of the ten dharma [realms]. ¹⁶¹ He clearly knows the potential, level of growth, maturity, and possibility for salvation of [all] sentient beings. This he knows according to their true state, and he is not mistaken.¹⁶² Aṅgulimāla was an evil person, but when he matured his true [good] aspects, he attained deliverance¹⁶³ Though monks who have attained the state of the fourth dhyāna¹⁶⁴ are good people, they will not sustain their deliverance if the evil aspect of their nature matures.

149

The implied answer to both of these questions is “none.” There is no dharma outside of the one total reality, and there is no wisdom which is not aroused through contemplation of this one reality. This world of our experience is itself the sum total of reality, and complete Buddha wisdom is attained here and now. return

150

A phrase from the Lotus Sūtra, already quoted more than once: “Only Buddhas can completely exhaust the unique aspects of reality” or, “all dharmas” return

151

See previous note. return

152

From the same section of the Lotus Sūtra as the above quotes; see Hurvitz, Lotus Sūtra, 22, translates: “The Buddhas’ wisdom is profound and incalculable. The gateways of their wisdom are hard to understand and hard to enter, so that no voice-hearer or pratyekabuddha can know them…” return

153

In this passage from the chapter on “Expedient Means,” the Buddha is speaking of the content of his enlightenment under the Bodhi Tree and his enjoyment of it for three weeks. Hurvitz, Lotus Sūtra, 43, translates: “Throughout three weeks/ I thought such thoughts as these:/ ‘The wisdom I have gained/ is the first among subtle things’.” return

154

See Hurvitz, Lotus Sūtra, 22-23. return

155

See Hurvitz, Lotus Sūtra, 29-31. return

156

The “burning house” refers to the analogy in the “Parable” chapter of the Lotus Sūtra in which a father entices his sons to flee from their burning house by promising them three wonderful carts. When the children emerge from the burning house the father gives them one splendid cart. This is analogous to the Buddha teaching the doctrine of the three vehicles, when in reality the sole goal for all is the one vehicle of Mahāyāna. See Hurvitz, Lotus Sūtra, 58ff. return

157

The fourth chapter of the Lotus Sūtra; Hurvitz, Lotus Sūtra, 84ff. return

158

See the parable of the rich father and his lost son in the chapter on “Faith and Understanding,” Hurvitz, Lotus Sūtra, 85ff. The story tells of a rich father who discovers his poor long-lost son and the father’s efforts and skillful means used to help his son realize his true nature. See note 29. This is analogous to the Buddha’s skillful means and activity in leading sentient beings to realize their true nature as potential Buddhas, or sons of the Buddha. return

159

See the fifth chapter of the Lotus Sūtra (Hurvitz, 101ff) which contains the parable of the rain falling equally on all grass and trees. The plants utilize this rain each according to their own capacity, as sentient beings each learn from the Buddha’s teaching according to their capacity to understand. See note 19. return

160

See the parable of the magical castle in chapter seven of the Lotus Sūtra; see Hurvitz, 130ff. return

161

The Buddha completely understands all there is to know about reality. return

162

Or, there is no error in him. return

163

See Aṅgulimāla Sūtra, T. 2, 512-543, and note 110. return

164

The highest of the four dhyāna stages within the so-called twenty-five realms of existence. This is a high level of attainment reached through contemplation or trance-like states, and refers to the state of attainment just below that of a “non-returner.” For details on these stages and trance-like states see Hurvitz, Chih-i, 339-342. return

The ten suchnesses [are interpreted] in relation to the ten dharma realms, i.e., the six destinies [of hell to people] and the four noble ways [of śrāvaka, pratyekabuddha, bodhisattva, and Buddha]. They are all called “dharma realms” for three reasons. First, all ten are based on the dharmadhātu [the Dharma or Absolute Reality], for there is no dharma outside the dharmadhātu. Therefore all of them taken together are referred to as the ten dharma realms.¹⁴² Second, these ten various dharma realms are classified distinctly and thus are not the same. Their causes and results are distinct and there are differences between ordinary ignorant men and sages. Therefore with this in mind they are called [distinct] realms.¹⁴³ Third, these ten [dharma realms] are all identical with the dharmadhātu and include all of reality.¹⁴⁴

All of reality is included in hell and does not transcend this destiny. Verily essence is identical to the principle [of reality], and since it does not depend on anything it is called the dharmadhātu.¹⁴⁵ The same is true for all destinies up to and including the Buddha realm. The ten dharma realms are [all] based on the dharmadhātu; that which is based depends on the basis. [From this perspective] one understands the realm of emptiness.¹⁴⁶ [The perspective of] each realm of the ten realms being distinct is the realm of conventional existence.¹⁴⁷ To say that all ten realms are the dharmadhātu is the realm of the middle.¹⁴⁸

I have made these distinctions to facilitate understanding, but to understand it correctly and put it into words [one must say that] “emptiness is identical to conventional existence and the middle” There is [ultimately] neither one nor two nor three, as discussed above.

142

The fundamental equality of all dharmas as empty of substantial Being corresponds to the first aspect of the threefold truth. return

143

The distinctness of conventional existence corresponds to the second aspect of the threefold truth. return

144

The ultimate identity of all dharmas corresponds to the third aspect of the threefold truth, the middle. return

145

The dharmadhātu is not based on anything outside of itself since it is the basis and the entire whole of reality itself. return

146

Here begins an attempt, less successful than with the ten suchnesses, to give a “triple reading” to the three characters “ten dharma realms” . If one emphasizes the underlying and common “dharma realm” rather than its ten distinctive aspects, this emphasizes the common emptiness of all dharmas. return

147

If one emphasizes the ten distinct realms rather than their underlying unity, this emphasizes their conventional existence. return

148

To take all three together and emphasize their unity is to emphasize the meaning of the middle. return

[I]n classifying the tentative and real, Fa-yün classified the first five suchlikes as the tentative, which belongs to common ignorant people. The next four suchlikes were classified as the real, which belong to sages. The last suchlike is a general one that brings together the tentative and the real. This verse [from Chapter Four of the Lotus Sūtra] is quoted as proof: “the suchlike great results and retributions.” Because they are “great,” therefore one can know the real. Because of “various meanings of nature and appearance” one can know the tentative.

I think that this [interpretation by Fa-yün] is mistaken. There are three meanings to the word “great” – large, many, and superior. If one accepts “large” to be the meaning of the real, then one should also accept the meanings of “many” and “superior.” But is not the fact of having various names [which is the defining characteristic of conventional existence] the meaning of “many”?¹³⁸ If one says that the tentative belongs to ordinary ignorant people, does that mean that ordinary people lack [participation in] the real?¹³⁹ If the real belongs to the sages, then does that mean that sages lack [participation in] tentative existence?¹⁴⁰ If one examines this position, one can see that it is unreliable.

Also, the northern Master[s] say that the first five are the tentative and the later five are the real. This [interpretation is based on] human emotions.¹⁴¹

138

Therefore the term “great” can apply to both the tentative and real. return

139

But the Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra says that all people possess the Buddha nature. return

140

But, for example, the bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara manifests himself in this world in thirty-three ways. return

141

In contrast to wisdom, it has no basis in reason or reality. return

142

The fundamental equality of all dharmas as empty of substantial Being return

The Lotus Sūtra utilizes [the number of] ten dharmas to embrace all of reality [sarvadharma], i.e., all dharmas are of suchlike appearance, suchlike nature, suchlike essence, suchlike power, suchlike function, suchlike causes, suchlike conditions suchlike results, suchlike retributions, and suchlike beginning and end ultimately the same.¹³² When Master [Hui-ssu] of Nan-yüeh read this text, since they all say “such,” he [interpreted it as] emphasizing ten suchnesses.

Chih-i says that, depending on the meaning, there are three ways of reading these phrases. The first is [to emphasize their suchness]: “the suchness of this their appearance, the suchness of this their nature . . . the suchness of this their retribution.” Second is [to emphasize their characteristics]: “suchlike appearance, suchlike nature . . . suchlike retribution.” Third is [to emphasize their thusness]: “their appearance is like this, their nature is like this . . . their retribution is like this.”¹³³

First, if all are referred to in their “suchness,” this “suchness” is non-differentiated and is identical to the meaning of emptiness. Second, if one speaks of suchlike appearance, suchlike nature, and so forth, one goes beyond the empty nature and characteristic [of dharmas], constructs names and words, and makes differentiations. This is the meaning of the “conventional.” Third, if one speaks of “their appearance is like this,” and so forth, this refers to the real aspect of the middle path, which is the meaning of the middle.¹³⁴

Distinctions are made in order to facilitate understanding; therefore [the threefold truth of] emptiness, conventional existence, and the middle is clarified. If one understands the meaning and tries to put it into words, the result is [expressed as] “the identity of emptiness with conventional existence and the middle.” If one clarifies emptiness with regard to suchness, [one should say that] the emptiness of one [dharma] is the emptiness of all. If one clarifies appearances [and so forth] by going beyond suchness, [one should say that] one conventional existence is the conventional existence of all. Following this, if one discusses the middle, [one should say that] the middleness of one [dharma] is the middleness of all. It is not one, two, or three, yet it is one, two, and three. The true aspects of reality are neither horizontal nor vertical.¹³⁵

Only a Buddha can completely understand this reality. All reality is included within these ten dharmas. If one were to discuss this according to the convenience of the meaning, the meaning can be discriminated into three parts.¹³⁶ If one were to read further, the verses say, “The suchlike great results and retributions, and the various meanings of natures and appearances and so forth. ¹³⁷

132

This classification is based on the chapter on “Expedient Means” in the Lotus Sūtra as translated by Kumarajiva cr. 9, 5c11-13), which, as Hurvitz points out, is so different from the extant Sanskrit that he devotes a long note to discussing the differences (Hurvitz, Lotus Sūtra, 349-350). Hurvitz translates this section as follows: “Concerning the prime, hard-to-understand dharmas, which the Buddha has perfected, only a Buddha and a Buddha can exhaust their reality, namely, the suchness of the dharmas, the suchness of their marks, the suchness of their nature, the suchness of their substance, the suchness of their powers, the suchness of their functions, the suchness of their causes, the suchness of their conditions, the suchness of their effects, the suchness of their retributions, and the absolute identity of their beginning and end.” This is a prime example of the importance and influence of Kumarajiva’s translations for the development of T’ien-t’ai and Chinese Buddhist thought. return

133

This “triple reading” works much of course, in the original Chinese where one can merely shuffle around the order of the three characters. return

134

Thus this triple reading reflects the threefold truth. To understand reality while emphasizing its “suchness” is to emphasize the emptiness, or lack of substantial Being, of all dharmas. To understand reality while emphasizing its individual conventional characteristics is to emphasize the conventional existence of dharmas. To understand reality as it truly is, is to realize the simultaneous emptiness and conventional existence of all dharmas as the middle path. return

135

That is, neither monistic, blasé oneness nor fundamental differentiation. return

136

The three aspects of emptiness, conventional, and middle? return

137

A reference to the verse version of this section, which Hurvitz, Lotus Sūtra, 23, translates:
As to such great fruits and retributions as these,
Such varied doctrines of nature and marks,
I and the Buddhas of the ten directions
Are the only ones who can know these things.
These dharmas cannot be demonstrated;
Words, which are only signs, are quiescent in them.
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